New Zealand, known for its unique flora and fauna, holds many secrets from the past. One of these was recently uncovered by a study published in Biology Letters: The extinct upland moa (Megalapteryx didinus) was not only a majestic bird but also played a key role in spreading the spores of colorful, truffle-like fungi such as Gallacea scleroderma and other truffles. These fungi, which still grow in New Zealand’s forests today, are crucial for maintaining the ecological balance of these ecosystems.
Mycovores and Symbiosis: How Animals and Fungi Shape New Zealand’s Forests

(© George Edward Lodge, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons)
Mycovores, or animals that consume fungi, play a crucial role in dispersing fungal spores. In regions without mammal-dominated fauna, such as New Zealand, birds likely took on this role. However, direct evidence for this assumption is limited because 41% of New Zealand’s native bird species have gone extinct since humans arrived in the 13th century. Moas are one of the most prominent examples of this loss—and with them, a critical ecological function disappeared.
Ectomycorrhizal fungi, such as truffles, porcini mushrooms, and fly agarics, fulfill an essential function in forest ecosystems by forming symbiotic relationships with trees and shrubs. The fungi provide plants with nutrients and water from the soil, while receiving sugars from photosynthesis in return. Ectomycorrhizal fungi cannot perform photosynthesis themselves and thus rely on these carbohydrates.
One striking example is the bright violet, truffle-like velvet potato fungus (Gallacea scleroderma). Its vibrant color likely evolved to attract birds like the moa, ensuring the fungus’s spores were consumed and dispersed. This symbiosis was vital to the stability and resilience of forests, particularly under changing climatic conditions.
Moas as Irreplaceable Spore Dispersers
Fossilized droppings from caves in the northwest of Nelson reveal that upland moas consumed not only colorful truffles like Gallacea scleroderma but also other ectomycorrhizal fungi such as Russula macrocystidiata and Rossbeevera pachydermis. These findings also indicate that fungal spores were present in high concentrations in the droppings, suggesting that moas actively fed on these fungi. With their long digestion times and wide-ranging movements, these flightless birds were crucial for transporting fungal spores across large distances and ensuring their spread.
Interestingly, evidence suggests that other moa species, such as the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus) and the bush moa (Anomalopteryx didiformis), also consumed fungi. Previous analyses of fossilized droppings from these species revealed traces of ectomycorrhizal fungi. However, these findings were less specific and lacked the taxonomic precision or definitive evidence of truffle-like fungi seen in the recent study.
The Consequences of Moa Extinction for New Zealand’s Forests
The extinction of moas in the 15th century – primarily due to overhunting – not only marked the loss of these fascinating birds but also removed key players from New Zealand’s ecosystems. Studies show that today, native birds in New Zealand rarely consume fungi, while introduced mammals like rats and deer primarily spread exotic fungal species. This shift threatens the diversity of endemic fungi like the colorful truffles. Without sufficient spore dispersal, these fungi could eventually vanish, weakening forest resilience. Invasive tree species, which are less dependent on such symbioses, could then gain an advantage and displace native forests.
Conclusion: A Delicate Balance
Moas were indispensable partners for New Zealand’s forests and an example of how closely interconnected animal and plant species are within an ecosystem. Their loss highlights how sensitive these networks are to disruptions like species extinction. Without moas and other native mycovores, the ecological balance continues to tilt. This could not only endanger native biodiversity but also reduce forest resilience against the impacts of climate change.
Reference
- Boast, A. P., Wood, J. R., Cooper, J., Bolstridge, N., Perry, G. L. W., & Wilmshurst, J. M. (2025). DNA and spores from coprolites reveal that colourful truffle-like fungi endemic to New Zealand were consumed by extinct moa (Dinornithiformes). Biology Letters, 21(2024). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0440
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